To successfully complete blog 2, I engaged online in the following ways:
- posted progress pertaining to the development of my second blog
- put up a video for everyone to watch
- corresponded with another student about linking her blog to mine (which I have done)
- commented on other blogs
- took on board comments which were posted on my blogs
- regularly participated in the discussion forum
- took part in other students polls
Monday, October 29, 2007
APPENDIX D: Reference List
Reference List
Buss, D.M., & Bames, M. (1986) Preferences in Human Mate Selection. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 559-570. Retrieved October 18, 2007, from EBSCOHost.
Cutright, P., & Cutright, L. (2006) The Five Keys to Powerful Partnerships. Retrieved October 20, 2007, from http://relationshiparticle.com/article.asp?Article=5127
Kenrick, D.T., Sadalla, E.K., Groth, G., & Trost, M.R. (1990) Evolution, Traits, and the Stages of Human Courtship: Qualifying the Parental Investment Model. Journal of Personality, 58(1), 97-116. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from EBSCOHost Database.
Murstein, B.I. (1970) Stimulus Value Role: A Theory of Marital Choice. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 32(3), 465-481. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from JSTOR Database.
Powell, R. (2007) Beck’s Social Psychology Page: Hot or Not: A Social-Psychological Inquiry into Interpersonal Attraction and Attractiveness Perception. Retrieved October 29, 2007, from http://powellpsychology.blogspot.com/2007/10/hor-or-not-social-psychological-inquiry.html
Synque (2002) Changing Minds: Social Penetration Theory. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/social_penetration.htm
Synque (2002) Changing Minds: Stage Theory. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/stage_theory.htm
Synque (2002) Changing Minds: Stimulus-Value-Role Model. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/stimulus-value-role_model.htm
Trivers, R.L. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man (Campbell B, ed). Chicago:Aldine; 136–179.
Woodward, K., & Richards, M.H. (2004) The Parental Investment Model and Minimum Mate Choice Criteria in Humans. Journal of Behavioral Ecology, 16(1), 57-61. Retrieved October 20, 2007, from ALLPSYCH Database.
Buss, D.M., & Bames, M. (1986) Preferences in Human Mate Selection. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 559-570. Retrieved October 18, 2007, from EBSCOHost.
Cutright, P., & Cutright, L. (2006) The Five Keys to Powerful Partnerships. Retrieved October 20, 2007, from http://relationshiparticle.com/article.asp?Article=5127
Kenrick, D.T., Sadalla, E.K., Groth, G., & Trost, M.R. (1990) Evolution, Traits, and the Stages of Human Courtship: Qualifying the Parental Investment Model. Journal of Personality, 58(1), 97-116. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from EBSCOHost Database.
Murstein, B.I. (1970) Stimulus Value Role: A Theory of Marital Choice. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 32(3), 465-481. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from JSTOR Database.
Powell, R. (2007) Beck’s Social Psychology Page: Hot or Not: A Social-Psychological Inquiry into Interpersonal Attraction and Attractiveness Perception. Retrieved October 29, 2007, from http://powellpsychology.blogspot.com/2007/10/hor-or-not-social-psychological-inquiry.html
Synque (2002) Changing Minds: Social Penetration Theory. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/social_penetration.htm
Synque (2002) Changing Minds: Stage Theory. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/stage_theory.htm
Synque (2002) Changing Minds: Stimulus-Value-Role Model. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/stimulus-value-role_model.htm
Trivers, R.L. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man (Campbell B, ed). Chicago:Aldine; 136–179.
Woodward, K., & Richards, M.H. (2004) The Parental Investment Model and Minimum Mate Choice Criteria in Humans. Journal of Behavioral Ecology, 16(1), 57-61. Retrieved October 20, 2007, from ALLPSYCH Database.
APPENDIX C: Traits
Kenrick, D.T., Sadalla, E.K., Groth, G., & Trost, M.R. (1990) Evolution, Traits, and the Stages of Human Courtship: Qualifying the Parental Investment Model. Journal of Personality, 58(1), 97-116. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from EBSCOHost Database. 
Blog 2: Development and Maturation of Relationships
THE DEVELOPMENT AND MATURATION OF RELATIONSHIPS THROUGH STAGES
This blog will critically examine a number of theories pertaining to stages relationships go through during development. Specifically, the Stimulus-value-role Model will be discussed in detail, with reference to research. Furthermore, the uncanny similarity between this model and Social penetration theory, Stage theory, and the Relational development Model will be discussed and presented within a table. A dissimilar theory, the Parental Investment Model will also be discussed in depth, with the evolutionary roots of the model clearly emphasised. Finally, discussed theories will be evaluated in application to personal relationship examples.
The Stimulus-value-role model seeks to explain how we choose our intimate partners through a three stage model, with the first stage being the stimulus stage, followed by the value stage and finally the role stage. Within each stage the dynamics of attraction and interaction are explained in terms of social-exchange theory, specifically the ‘give and take’ principle and the balance of these exchanges. The Stimulus-Value-Role Model suggests that in a relatively free choice situation most couples pass through these three stages before marriage.
The stimulus stage
In a situation where a man and woman do don’t know each other; one may be drawn to another based on their perception of physical, social, mental, or reputational attributes. Powell (2007) has discussed, in depth, what humans consider attractive. Furthermore, the stimulus stage also involves appraisal of one’s own attributes which they may perceive to be attractive to the other person.
The value stage
The value stage requires verbal interaction in order to examine each other’s values and determine value compatibility. General values which may be explored during this stage include; attitudes towards life, politics, religion, sex, and the roles of men and women in society and marriage (Sinque, 2002). As this stage it is also possible for closer appraisal of stimulus values as well as temperament and ability to relate to others. Such close appraisal of stimulus values, and general values may lead to reduced desirability and termination of contact (Simnque, 2002). However, Murstein (1970) suggests where initial stimulus attraction has been strong; couples are less likely to terminate contact during the value stage.
The role stage
During the role stage a couple faces three tasks before contemplating marriage; role fit, personal adequacy, and sexual compatibility. Role fit involves each partners increased awareness of what they desire in a future spouse and their more conscious comparison of these expectations with their perception of their partner. Personal adequacy includes taking measurement of oneself and partner and examining inadequacies which bear high costs upon marriage. And finally, prior to marriage a couple must attain sexual consistency (achieving a good sexual relationship) and agree to the degree of which sexuality will be expressed during marriage (Murstein, 1970).
The value-stage-role model has been empirically tested by Murstein (1970), who validated the theory based on the confirmation of nineteen hypotheses pertaining to the efficacy of the theory. However, Murstein has suggested future research determine whether reported findings can be replicated and whether alternative models will also account for these findings equally or perhaps even better.
Social penetration theory, Stage theory, and the Relational Development Model are also dominant relationship stage theories. Similar to the Stimulus-value-role model, each of these theories has an initial attraction stage, a growth stage, and a stage of stability. Appendix B presents a table which demonstrates specific similarities between stages and each theory. However, unlike the stimulus-value-role model, social penetration theory, stage theory and the relational development model each contain a closure stage. The closure stage, as described by each of these theories, occurs when costs of the relationship exceed benefits and the relationship finally breaks down. Cutright and Cutright (2006) explain the closure stage must occur in every relationship whether it be a break-down of the relationship or even the death of a partner.
Although the discussed theories are comprehensive and describe relevant stages of relationship development, they do not discuss a stage of ‘power struggle’. Cutright and Cutright (2006) argue the power struggle stage is of the most important stages of any relationship. The power struggle is just that, a struggle between each partner to a relationship to gain power over the direction of the relationship. Cutright and Cutright (2006) believe a power struggle is a necessary stage for couples to build trust as their relationship matures. Furthermore, each time a relationship increases in commitment (i.e. buying a house, or having children) the amount of trust required also increases, meaning it is inevitable for a power struggle to occur more than once. Unfortunately, Cutright and Cutright’s (2006) theory of relationship lacks academic support and solid research. A new model of relationship development is proposed which incorporates the unanimous stages of the stimulus-value-role model, social penetration theory, stage theory, and the relational development model (especially the closure stage, as it must occur in every relationship), as well as a power struggle stage.
Unlike that of previously discussed relationship stage models, the parental investment model is an evolutionary theory based upon Darwin’s notion of sexual selection. Sexual selection refers to selection of a mate based upon traits which increase the probability of reproduction (Kenrick et al., 1990).The underlying principle of the parental investment model is; the amount of parental investment required within a relationship should, and does determine the selection criteria for potential mates. (Kenrick et al., 1990).
According to Trivers’ (1972) the parental investment model leads to two predictions; (1) both males and females will exhibit more stringent mate choice in mating situations entailing a higher level or risk of parental investment, and (2) there will be a discrepancy in the stringency of male and female choosiness that is more or less proportional to their differential risk of parental investment.
Kenrick et al. (1990) conducted the first major test of the parental investment model, investigating the effect of level of parental investment on the stringency of mate choice in mate choice relationships entailing different risks of pregnancy. The two predictions of the parental investment model were in-fact confirmed, females were significantly choosier than males in selecting a mate for a relationship with high risk of pregnancy, and choosiness increased for both males and females as the risk of parental investment increased. Unpredicted by the model, females were significantly more stringent than males when it came to selecting a mate for a one-off sexual encounter with the risk of pregnancy (Kenrick et al., 1990). Woodward and Richards (2004) have been critical of Kenrick et al.’s (1990) study suggesting it examines mate choice as it relates to perceived risk of parental investment rather than real risk.
For the purpose of this blog, the selection of a potential mate based upon exhibited traits will be understood as a stage of mate selection. For example, if a potential mate does not exhibit desirable traits, he cannot advance to the stage of making a parental investment.
So what traits are desirable when it comes to mate selection with high risk of parental investment? Kenrick et al. (1990) hypothesised sexes would differ most on criteria related to status and dominance, which was supported. Males were more selective regarding physical attractiveness, whereas females were more selective regarding traits related to resource location and dominance, which supports the findings of Buss and Barnes (1986). ‘This follows the typical mammalian pattern of the evolutionary perspective, in which a female selects a dominant male who will contribute desirable genes.’ Appendix C presents statistical results for traits studied by Kenrick et al. (1990) at the stage where sexual relations occurs (the presented table also shows statistics for traits at different relationship stages not discussed in this blog).
In application to personal relationships, the Stimulus-value-role Model and similar theories discussed are accurate in describing the stages this specific relationship went through. Furthermore, this relationship did go through a stage of power struggle as Cutright and Cutright (2006) have suggested in necessary. In this situation, the power struggle was to do with each partner trying to gain control over when and where the other partner spent time with his/her friends. Although the power struggle was an unstable time during the relationship, it was in fact necessary for the development of trust as Cutright and Cutright (2006) have suggested. With reference to the parental investment model, I have found that as a twenty year-old my selections of a partner have become more stringent as I think about finding a life partner, and someone to parentally invest. It is my opinion that each of the models discussed are all accurate and can apply to an array of relationship situations.
In conclusion, the Stimulus-value-role Model, Social penetration theory, Stage theory, and the Relational development Model each have valuably contributed to a social psychological explanation of how relationships mature and develop. These theories could be improved with extra research, and particularly the inclusion of a power struggle stage as described by Cutright and Cutright (2006). The evolutionary Parental Investment Model is also valuable in explaining exactly how partners are chosen, and how they have been chosen throughout evolution. Although, this model could be improved with extra research which clearly examines real risk of parental investment rather than perceived risk as Woodward and Richards (2004) have recommended.
1,403 Words excluding references, citations, and headings.
See Appendix D for Reference List
Please see Appendix E for Self-evaluation
Friday, October 26, 2007
Concept map
Hi Everyone,
This is my concept map so far ( i may edit it again before my final submission) I'll upload it for everyone to see so you can get an idea of exactly where im going with my blog. Keep in mind i'll probably only go into detail for 2 theories (at this stage Knapp's Relational Development Model and the Stimulus-value-role model). Im having a bit of trouble finding a theory which has a power struggle stage (or equivelent) which is academic enough to discuss. Plus, i'm running out of words so i might just write a short paragraph on power struggles in relationships and evidence that with a few goods examples and solid research. Also, I may be publishing a link to Beck's (Rebekah Powell) blog which discusses beauty and what is considered attractive and why. As for the rest of the theories, i'm considering tabling them according to similarities in stages as suggested b
y James.
Thanks - comments more than welcome!
This is my concept map so far ( i may edit it again before my final submission) I'll upload it for everyone to see so you can get an idea of exactly where im going with my blog. Keep in mind i'll probably only go into detail for 2 theories (at this stage Knapp's Relational Development Model and the Stimulus-value-role model). Im having a bit of trouble finding a theory which has a power struggle stage (or equivelent) which is academic enough to discuss. Plus, i'm running out of words so i might just write a short paragraph on power struggles in relationships and evidence that with a few goods examples and solid research. Also, I may be publishing a link to Beck's (Rebekah Powell) blog which discusses beauty and what is considered attractive and why. As for the rest of the theories, i'm considering tabling them according to similarities in stages as suggested b
y James.Thanks - comments more than welcome!
Wednesday, October 24, 2007
This short clip that i pulled from you tube talks about 5 stages of relationships (which im going to do a bit of research on as they are different from what i've already looked at) but what is interesting is that they talk about every relationship concluding (i.e. breaking up or til death do us part!) Well, anyway they have an interesting take on the 'predictability' of ALL relationships.
blog plan developing...slowly..
So here's the plan as it currently stands:
1. Stimulus-value-role model;
- stimulus stage (physical attribute evaluation - no interpersonal contact)
- value stage (interpersonal contact - comparing values & making decision as to whether or not values are compatible. If values aren't compatible contact can be terminated)
- role stage (sharing activities to build a relationship - i.e. you do this and i'll do that, roles are complementary)
2. Social penetration theory;
- orientation stage (small talk and gestures - following stadards of social desirability and norms)
- exploratory effective stage (reveal values, attitudes ect. at this point the relationship may become and remain a friendship)
- affective stage (reveal private and personal values/attitudes ect. This is the stage where is becomes okay to criticise and argue and kiss and touch each other)
-stable stage (personal and private thing still shared - relationship plateau's - partner's can predict one another's emotional reactions to certain things) THIS IS THE STAGE WHERE A RELATIONSHIP REMAINS UNLESS IT BREAKS DOWN!
- depenetration (relationship begins to break down and costs exceed benefits - withdrawal of disclosure leads to relationship termination)
3. Stage theory;
-Acquaintance/attraction (initial attraction based upon beauty and similarity)
- Build-up (partners become interdependent and begin to irritate one another - but benefits outweigh costs)
-continuation/consolidation (long-term committments are made. This may be marriage, moving in together, having a child, or even getting a pet!)
- deterioration (relationship begins to decay - this may be due to; relative effort, rewards, availability of alternatives)
-ending (the relationship ends when one or both partners seperate)
4. Parental investment model
I've only just started researching this theory (it's quite new and detailed). Although, it is based upon Charles Darwin's notion of sexual selection. So it has an evolutionary feel and basically describes differences between men and women's 'checklist' for a mate. Although it doesn't describe stages of a relationship per se, it does go through a sequence of how mates have been selected throughout evolution.
That's it so far! But I am interested in incorporating a bit of info about beauty/attractiveness into this blog. Specifically, stage theory specifies the beauty or physical attributes of a person is what initially attracts a potential partner. So i'm thinking about maybe putting in a link to another person's blog who has at some point discussed beauty or is doing so for their own blog. I wanted to do this because i'm interested in the topic of beauty but it's not quite relevant enough to my topic of 'Relationship Stages' for me to have an actually discussion ab out it myself!
I'd appreciate some feedback on that idea because i'm not sure how appropriate that might be i.e. if other people would mind 'contributing' to my work (i'd ask permission first of course!!!!).
Thanks for reading..!
1. Stimulus-value-role model;
- stimulus stage (physical attribute evaluation - no interpersonal contact)
- value stage (interpersonal contact - comparing values & making decision as to whether or not values are compatible. If values aren't compatible contact can be terminated)
- role stage (sharing activities to build a relationship - i.e. you do this and i'll do that, roles are complementary)
2. Social penetration theory;
- orientation stage (small talk and gestures - following stadards of social desirability and norms)
- exploratory effective stage (reveal values, attitudes ect. at this point the relationship may become and remain a friendship)
- affective stage (reveal private and personal values/attitudes ect. This is the stage where is becomes okay to criticise and argue and kiss and touch each other)
-stable stage (personal and private thing still shared - relationship plateau's - partner's can predict one another's emotional reactions to certain things) THIS IS THE STAGE WHERE A RELATIONSHIP REMAINS UNLESS IT BREAKS DOWN!
- depenetration (relationship begins to break down and costs exceed benefits - withdrawal of disclosure leads to relationship termination)
3. Stage theory;
-Acquaintance/attraction (initial attraction based upon beauty and similarity)
- Build-up (partners become interdependent and begin to irritate one another - but benefits outweigh costs)
-continuation/consolidation (long-term committments are made. This may be marriage, moving in together, having a child, or even getting a pet!)
- deterioration (relationship begins to decay - this may be due to; relative effort, rewards, availability of alternatives)
-ending (the relationship ends when one or both partners seperate)
4. Parental investment model
I've only just started researching this theory (it's quite new and detailed). Although, it is based upon Charles Darwin's notion of sexual selection. So it has an evolutionary feel and basically describes differences between men and women's 'checklist' for a mate. Although it doesn't describe stages of a relationship per se, it does go through a sequence of how mates have been selected throughout evolution.
That's it so far! But I am interested in incorporating a bit of info about beauty/attractiveness into this blog. Specifically, stage theory specifies the beauty or physical attributes of a person is what initially attracts a potential partner. So i'm thinking about maybe putting in a link to another person's blog who has at some point discussed beauty or is doing so for their own blog. I wanted to do this because i'm interested in the topic of beauty but it's not quite relevant enough to my topic of 'Relationship Stages' for me to have an actually discussion ab out it myself!
I'd appreciate some feedback on that idea because i'm not sure how appropriate that might be i.e. if other people would mind 'contributing' to my work (i'd ask permission first of course!!!!).
Thanks for reading..!
Thursday, October 18, 2007
Initial Blog 2 Plan
I've begun planning my second blog (amidst exam study!!). My topic is relationship stages, with reference to theories and application to my own relationships.
At the moment the theories i'll be covering are:
1. Levinger's Relationship Stage Theory
2. Altman and Taylor's Social Penetration Theory
3. Murstein's Stimulus-Value-Role Model
Any ideas/suggestions/criticisms more than welcome!!!
At the moment the theories i'll be covering are:
1. Levinger's Relationship Stage Theory
2. Altman and Taylor's Social Penetration Theory
3. Murstein's Stimulus-Value-Role Model
Any ideas/suggestions/criticisms more than welcome!!!
Monday, September 3, 2007
My finished Essay
Attitudes: formation, change, and factors which determined the success of the Australian National Tobacco Campaign.
Abstract
This essay examines beliefs and attitudes in terms of how they a formed and how they can be changed. Persuasion, as a method of change, is emphasised. Persuasion strategies and techniques are also described. Finally, a case study of the Australian National Tobacco Campaign examines persuasion in action. The success of the campaign is also evaluated.
Introduction
Beliefs and attitudes are necessary for adapting to new situations and attitude change is necessary for arriving at new situations. Attitudes are formed in an array of ways including; classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social/observational learning and mere exposure effect. A variety of theories stipulate how attitudes can be changed once formed; the general consensus being persuasion is the key to change. The Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion presents two routes in which messages can be sent and received, and the Yale attitude change approach specifies factors which influence the effectiveness of the message being sent and the likelihood of persuasion. A concept map of attitude change is presented in Appendix A. This essay also contains a case study of the Australian National Tobacco Campaign, which outlines persuasion methods, strategies, and techniques employed by the campaign. The effectiveness of the Australian National Tobacco Campaign is also evaluated.
Beliefs and Attitudes
Smoking is a behaviour shaped by beliefs (what ones knows about smoking) and attitudes (whether or not one likes or dislikes smoking behaviour). A person’s beliefs about smoking can be shaped by what they do and don’t know about smoking, for example; a person may smoke because they have been exposed to information regarding the consequences and are willing to take health risks, or they may smoke because they haven’t been exposed to such information and don’t know what consequences they may suffer as a result of smoking behaviour. An attitude is an evaluation of a belief, in other words we choose whether we like or dislike something based on what we known about it. ‘Attitudes are necessary and adaptive for humans as they help us to adjust to new situations, seeking out those things in our environment that reward us and avoiding those things that punish us.’ (Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J., 2008, pp. 227) We may also have a duel attitude; that is both implicit and explicit attitudes about smoking behaviour. An implicit attitude is an internal automatic response whereas an explicit is an external controlled response. An example of a dual attitude is disliking smoking because of health risks (i.e your beliefs about smoking) but smoking anyway. Some people poses very strong attitudes, attitude polarization occurs when strong attitudes become more extreme upon reflection.
Consistency theory suggests that when an individual’s beliefs and attitudes are aligned and support one another, that individual experiences a comfortable state of affairs. (Changing Minds, 2007) However, when beliefs and attitudes are inconsistent with one another we experience cognitive dissonance (individual awareness of inconsistencies in thoughts, feelings, and opinions). According to Festinger (1957) people avoid information that is likely to increase dissonance.
Formation of attitudes
Attitudes about smoking, and anything else can be formed by classical conditioning, social/observational learning, operant conditioning, and mere exposure effect.
Classical conditioning is the repeated pairing of potential attitude objects (conditioned stimuli) with positively and negatively charged stimuli (unconditioned stimulus). (Wikipedia, 2007) Lazev, Herzog and Brandon (1999) conducted a study to examine classical conditioning of environmental cues to cigarette smoking. Environmental cues caused physiological reactivity (cardiac responses) indicating environmental cues can be classically conditioned to smoking
Social learning or observational learning is ‘is learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behavior observed in others.’ (Wikipedia, 2006) Khron et al. (1985) hypothesised causality for social learning and adolescent cigarette smoking; however, found that social learning theory best accounted for maintenance and cessation rather than initiation of smoking.
Operant conditioning and mere exposure effect also provide useful explanations as to the formation of attitudes.
Attitude change
Attitudes can be changed as easily as they can be formed. There are a variety of sociopsychological theories which stipulate how this occurs. Particularly prominent theories of attitude change have been conflict theory, reinforcement theory, and incentive theory.
Jans and Mann’s (1968) conflict theory suggests that new information may challenge existing attitudes. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) As a result, the individual will seek out alternative actions (i.e. quitting) through a five step process; (1) appraisal of the challenge, (2) appraisal of alternatives, (3) selection of the best alternative, (4) commitment to a new policy, and (5) evaluation of the new system in place. (Changing Minds, 2007) Farrelly et al. (2002) conducted a study to evaluate whether or not new scientific information, presented in an American anti-smoking campaign influenced youth’s smoking beliefs and attitudes. It was found that the presentation of new information did in fact positively influence beliefs and attitudes as the conflict theory suggests.
Consistent with conflict theory is Hovland, Janis, and Kelley’s reinforcement theory. This theory stipulates attitude change is the result of learning and reinforcement of information learned. Furthermore, receiving, hearing, or accepting new options is likely to bring about attitude change. (Changing Minds, 2007) A 2005 study of 25,000 American school children, who had attended anti-smoking programs which involved lectures and role-modeling sessions, concluded that anti-smoking programs don’t work unless the messages are reinforced in the home and community. (Billingsley, J., 2005) These findings are consistent with the reinforcement hypothesis.
And finally, incentive theory simply puts forth that new opinions and information are accepted if there is the potential for reward.
Persuasion
Conflict and reinforcement theory attribute successful attitude change based on the acquisition of new information. However, individuals must be persuaded to accept new information before their attitudes can be changed, therefore persuasion is the key to attitude change.
Petty and Cacioppo’s elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM hereafter) describes how attitudes and formed and change through persuasion, based upon an elaboration continuum, which ranges from low elaboration (low thought) to high elaboration (high thought). According to the ELM there are two routes to persuasion, the central route and the peripheral route. A central route of persuasion used by advertisers ‘requires a great deal of thought, and therefore is likely to predominate under conditions that promote high elaboration.’ (Wikipedia, 2007) Central route processes (i.e. a speech or advertisement) are designed to encourage the audience to elaborate on the information provided and determine beliefs and an attitude about the presented argument. On the other hand, a peripheral route involves low elaboration of the message and can be as simple as learning a slogan or catch phrase. Ultimately, the message sent has been successfully received if the new attitudes, based on new information, reflect that of the message itself. Metzler et al. (1999) applied the ELM to examine attitude change and persuasion on the topic of HIV prevention. Results revealed central route processes (high elaboration), in this case a HIV positive teenager and a strong argument, were the greatest influence upon attitudes as the ELM stipulates. (Metzler et al., 1999)
Hovland’s Yale attitude change approach, which emphasises persuasion, has been highly influential upon the way in which advertisements are designed. According to Hovland, ‘we should understand attitude change as a response to communication’. (Wikipedia, 2006) This theory presents four factors which Hovland believes affect the persuasiveness of a message;
(1) Target characteristics
(2) Source characteristics
(3) Message characteristics
(4) Cognitive routes (Wikipedia, 2007)
Persuasion Strategies
The most common persuasion strategy used by advertisers is hard sell or soft sell strategies.
Soft sell strategies involve a gentler more emotionally appealing approach. There are three ‘soft steps’ that can be taken when employing a soft sell strategy; (1) listen to and observe what people are saying or have said, (2) question their objections, and (3) address their concerns.
Hard sell strategies are the more aggressive approach to persuasion. There are two ‘hard steps’ which can be taken when employing a hard sell strategy; (1) let enthusiasm and passion show, and (2) be able to support your belief. (AOL Small Business, 2006)
Persuasion techniques
Advertiser’s attempt to persuade target audiences through appeal by reason or appeal by emotion. (Wikipedia, 2007)
Appeal by reason techniques include;
> Logical argument
> Scientific method
> Rhetoric
> Proof
Appeal by emotion techniques include; (Wikipedia, 2007)
> Presentation/Imagination
> Seduction
> Propaganda
Case Study: The Australian National Tobacco Campaign.
The National Tobacco Campaign (NTC hereafter) is a collaborative quit-smoking health initiative between federal, state, and territory governments, and non-government organisations. (Quit now, 2006, online) Between 1996 and 2004 the federal government has committed $21.3 million to the NTC. (Quit now, 2006) The campaign is targeted at 18-40 year old smokers, and aims to persuade the target audience to change their beliefs and attitudes about smoking and quit today rather than planning to do so in the future.
The main message being sent by the NTC is ‘every cigarette is doing you damage’. This message is send via hard-hitting television advertisements (see Appendix B), radio advertisements, newspaper advertisements, graphic images on cigarette packaging, bus advertising, poster’s, and Doctor’s television, and on the official ‘quit now’ website. Pierce, Macaskill, and Hill (1990) evaluated a year long Australian anti-smoking campaign in terms of the success of the mass media strategy used, similar to that of the current NTC. It was concluded that a mass media strategy was effective in terms of continuous reinforcement and a decrease in the prevalence of smoking at the time.
As well as a mass media strategy, the NTC employs a hard sell strategy. This is evidenced by the ‘hard-hitting’ prime-time television advertisements and graphic images printed on cigarette packaging produced by the NTC, which are often referred to as ‘shock advertising’ or ‘fear tactics’. According to Ellis (2006) fear tactics and graphic advertising are an appropriate and effective approach for reducing the negative impact of smoking.
In terms of routes of persuasion, the design of NTC advertising indicates intended central and peripheral route processes. For example; the television and radio advertisements, Doctor’s television, and the Quit now website indicate a central route process because these types of advertising require individual’s to think about what they’ve been told/heard and read, and evaluate the information in order to make a decision to change their attitude or not. Graphic images on cigarette packaging, bus advertisements, and posters generally require individuals to remember a catch phrase (i.e. ‘every cigarette is doing you damage’), a slogan (i.e. ‘quit now’) or simply the images advertised, indicating a peripheral process.
The NTC uses a variety of techniques to aid its advertising and influence attitude change, specifically those which appeal by reason. Techniques evident in NTC advertising are;
> Logical argument – presents both the negatives of smoking, and the positives of smoking cessation.
Abstract
This essay examines beliefs and attitudes in terms of how they a formed and how they can be changed. Persuasion, as a method of change, is emphasised. Persuasion strategies and techniques are also described. Finally, a case study of the Australian National Tobacco Campaign examines persuasion in action. The success of the campaign is also evaluated.
Introduction
Beliefs and attitudes are necessary for adapting to new situations and attitude change is necessary for arriving at new situations. Attitudes are formed in an array of ways including; classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social/observational learning and mere exposure effect. A variety of theories stipulate how attitudes can be changed once formed; the general consensus being persuasion is the key to change. The Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion presents two routes in which messages can be sent and received, and the Yale attitude change approach specifies factors which influence the effectiveness of the message being sent and the likelihood of persuasion. A concept map of attitude change is presented in Appendix A. This essay also contains a case study of the Australian National Tobacco Campaign, which outlines persuasion methods, strategies, and techniques employed by the campaign. The effectiveness of the Australian National Tobacco Campaign is also evaluated.
Beliefs and Attitudes
Smoking is a behaviour shaped by beliefs (what ones knows about smoking) and attitudes (whether or not one likes or dislikes smoking behaviour). A person’s beliefs about smoking can be shaped by what they do and don’t know about smoking, for example; a person may smoke because they have been exposed to information regarding the consequences and are willing to take health risks, or they may smoke because they haven’t been exposed to such information and don’t know what consequences they may suffer as a result of smoking behaviour. An attitude is an evaluation of a belief, in other words we choose whether we like or dislike something based on what we known about it. ‘Attitudes are necessary and adaptive for humans as they help us to adjust to new situations, seeking out those things in our environment that reward us and avoiding those things that punish us.’ (Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J., 2008, pp. 227) We may also have a duel attitude; that is both implicit and explicit attitudes about smoking behaviour. An implicit attitude is an internal automatic response whereas an explicit is an external controlled response. An example of a dual attitude is disliking smoking because of health risks (i.e your beliefs about smoking) but smoking anyway. Some people poses very strong attitudes, attitude polarization occurs when strong attitudes become more extreme upon reflection.
Consistency theory suggests that when an individual’s beliefs and attitudes are aligned and support one another, that individual experiences a comfortable state of affairs. (Changing Minds, 2007) However, when beliefs and attitudes are inconsistent with one another we experience cognitive dissonance (individual awareness of inconsistencies in thoughts, feelings, and opinions). According to Festinger (1957) people avoid information that is likely to increase dissonance.
Formation of attitudes
Attitudes about smoking, and anything else can be formed by classical conditioning, social/observational learning, operant conditioning, and mere exposure effect.
Classical conditioning is the repeated pairing of potential attitude objects (conditioned stimuli) with positively and negatively charged stimuli (unconditioned stimulus). (Wikipedia, 2007) Lazev, Herzog and Brandon (1999) conducted a study to examine classical conditioning of environmental cues to cigarette smoking. Environmental cues caused physiological reactivity (cardiac responses) indicating environmental cues can be classically conditioned to smoking
Social learning or observational learning is ‘is learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behavior observed in others.’ (Wikipedia, 2006) Khron et al. (1985) hypothesised causality for social learning and adolescent cigarette smoking; however, found that social learning theory best accounted for maintenance and cessation rather than initiation of smoking.
Operant conditioning and mere exposure effect also provide useful explanations as to the formation of attitudes.
Attitude change
Attitudes can be changed as easily as they can be formed. There are a variety of sociopsychological theories which stipulate how this occurs. Particularly prominent theories of attitude change have been conflict theory, reinforcement theory, and incentive theory.
Jans and Mann’s (1968) conflict theory suggests that new information may challenge existing attitudes. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) As a result, the individual will seek out alternative actions (i.e. quitting) through a five step process; (1) appraisal of the challenge, (2) appraisal of alternatives, (3) selection of the best alternative, (4) commitment to a new policy, and (5) evaluation of the new system in place. (Changing Minds, 2007) Farrelly et al. (2002) conducted a study to evaluate whether or not new scientific information, presented in an American anti-smoking campaign influenced youth’s smoking beliefs and attitudes. It was found that the presentation of new information did in fact positively influence beliefs and attitudes as the conflict theory suggests.
Consistent with conflict theory is Hovland, Janis, and Kelley’s reinforcement theory. This theory stipulates attitude change is the result of learning and reinforcement of information learned. Furthermore, receiving, hearing, or accepting new options is likely to bring about attitude change. (Changing Minds, 2007) A 2005 study of 25,000 American school children, who had attended anti-smoking programs which involved lectures and role-modeling sessions, concluded that anti-smoking programs don’t work unless the messages are reinforced in the home and community. (Billingsley, J., 2005) These findings are consistent with the reinforcement hypothesis.
And finally, incentive theory simply puts forth that new opinions and information are accepted if there is the potential for reward.
Persuasion
Conflict and reinforcement theory attribute successful attitude change based on the acquisition of new information. However, individuals must be persuaded to accept new information before their attitudes can be changed, therefore persuasion is the key to attitude change.
Petty and Cacioppo’s elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM hereafter) describes how attitudes and formed and change through persuasion, based upon an elaboration continuum, which ranges from low elaboration (low thought) to high elaboration (high thought). According to the ELM there are two routes to persuasion, the central route and the peripheral route. A central route of persuasion used by advertisers ‘requires a great deal of thought, and therefore is likely to predominate under conditions that promote high elaboration.’ (Wikipedia, 2007) Central route processes (i.e. a speech or advertisement) are designed to encourage the audience to elaborate on the information provided and determine beliefs and an attitude about the presented argument. On the other hand, a peripheral route involves low elaboration of the message and can be as simple as learning a slogan or catch phrase. Ultimately, the message sent has been successfully received if the new attitudes, based on new information, reflect that of the message itself. Metzler et al. (1999) applied the ELM to examine attitude change and persuasion on the topic of HIV prevention. Results revealed central route processes (high elaboration), in this case a HIV positive teenager and a strong argument, were the greatest influence upon attitudes as the ELM stipulates. (Metzler et al., 1999)
Hovland’s Yale attitude change approach, which emphasises persuasion, has been highly influential upon the way in which advertisements are designed. According to Hovland, ‘we should understand attitude change as a response to communication’. (Wikipedia, 2006) This theory presents four factors which Hovland believes affect the persuasiveness of a message;
(1) Target characteristics
(2) Source characteristics
(3) Message characteristics
(4) Cognitive routes (Wikipedia, 2007)
Persuasion Strategies
The most common persuasion strategy used by advertisers is hard sell or soft sell strategies.
Soft sell strategies involve a gentler more emotionally appealing approach. There are three ‘soft steps’ that can be taken when employing a soft sell strategy; (1) listen to and observe what people are saying or have said, (2) question their objections, and (3) address their concerns.
Hard sell strategies are the more aggressive approach to persuasion. There are two ‘hard steps’ which can be taken when employing a hard sell strategy; (1) let enthusiasm and passion show, and (2) be able to support your belief. (AOL Small Business, 2006)
Persuasion techniques
Advertiser’s attempt to persuade target audiences through appeal by reason or appeal by emotion. (Wikipedia, 2007)
Appeal by reason techniques include;
> Logical argument
> Scientific method
> Rhetoric
> Proof
Appeal by emotion techniques include; (Wikipedia, 2007)
> Presentation/Imagination
> Seduction
> Propaganda
Case Study: The Australian National Tobacco Campaign.
The National Tobacco Campaign (NTC hereafter) is a collaborative quit-smoking health initiative between federal, state, and territory governments, and non-government organisations. (Quit now, 2006, online) Between 1996 and 2004 the federal government has committed $21.3 million to the NTC. (Quit now, 2006) The campaign is targeted at 18-40 year old smokers, and aims to persuade the target audience to change their beliefs and attitudes about smoking and quit today rather than planning to do so in the future.
The main message being sent by the NTC is ‘every cigarette is doing you damage’. This message is send via hard-hitting television advertisements (see Appendix B), radio advertisements, newspaper advertisements, graphic images on cigarette packaging, bus advertising, poster’s, and Doctor’s television, and on the official ‘quit now’ website. Pierce, Macaskill, and Hill (1990) evaluated a year long Australian anti-smoking campaign in terms of the success of the mass media strategy used, similar to that of the current NTC. It was concluded that a mass media strategy was effective in terms of continuous reinforcement and a decrease in the prevalence of smoking at the time.
As well as a mass media strategy, the NTC employs a hard sell strategy. This is evidenced by the ‘hard-hitting’ prime-time television advertisements and graphic images printed on cigarette packaging produced by the NTC, which are often referred to as ‘shock advertising’ or ‘fear tactics’. According to Ellis (2006) fear tactics and graphic advertising are an appropriate and effective approach for reducing the negative impact of smoking.
In terms of routes of persuasion, the design of NTC advertising indicates intended central and peripheral route processes. For example; the television and radio advertisements, Doctor’s television, and the Quit now website indicate a central route process because these types of advertising require individual’s to think about what they’ve been told/heard and read, and evaluate the information in order to make a decision to change their attitude or not. Graphic images on cigarette packaging, bus advertisements, and posters generally require individuals to remember a catch phrase (i.e. ‘every cigarette is doing you damage’), a slogan (i.e. ‘quit now’) or simply the images advertised, indicating a peripheral process.
The NTC uses a variety of techniques to aid its advertising and influence attitude change, specifically those which appeal by reason. Techniques evident in NTC advertising are;
> Logical argument – presents both the negatives of smoking, and the positives of smoking cessation.
> Scientific evidence – presents statistical information, facts and figures.
> Proof – presents physical evidence of tumors, lung cancer, brain clots, gangrene, and rotting teeth.
According to Stillman (2007) mass media campaigns are one of the most effective means to reduce smoking. ‘Evaluation of Australia's famous 'Every cigarette is doing you damage' ad shows that after the first six months of the mass media campaign smoking rates in Australia dropped by 1.4 per cent, representing 190,000 fewer smokers. An economic evaluation has shown that the campaign was excellent value for money and resulted in significant savings to the health system.’ (Stillman, 2007)
Summary
Beliefs and attitudes are necessary for adapting to new situations and attitude change is necessary for arriving at new situations. Theories such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social/observational learning have been developed to explain how attitudes form. Furthermore, theories have also been developed to explain how and why attitudes need to change. It is a general consensus that attitudes are largely changed by persuasion, as the elaboration likelihood model and the Yale attitude change approach suggest. A case example of attitude change through persuasion is the Australian National Tobacco Campaign. This campaign has been designed based on routes specified by the elaboration likelihood model, and employs techniques which generally appeal by reason to the target audience. Overall, the Australian National Tobacco Campaign has been deemed a success in terms of smoking prevalence, and has also been economically worthwhile.
Bibliography
AOL Small Business (2006) Soft Sell or Hard Sell? Retrieved August 27, 2007 from http://smallbusiness.aol.com/grow/marketing/article/_a/soft-sell-or-hard-sell/20051213182709990005
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006) 4831.0.55.001 - Tobacco Smoking in Australia: A Snapshot, 2004-05. Retrieved September, 1, 2007 from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4831.0.55.001
Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social psychology and human nature (1st ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Billingsley, J. (2005) School Anti-Smoking Programs Don't Work. Retrieved August, 30, 2007 from http://www.healthywomen.org/resources/womenshealthinthenews/dbhealthnews/schoolantismokingprogramsdontwork
Changing Minds (2007) Consistency Theory / Conflict Theory / Reinforcement Theory / Incentive Theory. Retrieved August, 26, 2007 from http://www.changingminds.org/theories
Ellis, L. (2006) Fear Tactics and Graphic Advertising: An Appropriate Approach for Reducing the Negative Impact of Smoking. Retrieved August, 29, 2007 from http://www.virginia.edu/humanbiology/new_site_files/class_2006/Ellis%20Abstract.pdf [Accessed
Farrelly, M.C., Healton, C.G., Davis, K.C., Messeri, P., Hersey, J.C., & Haviland, M.L. (2002) Getting to the Truth: Evaluating National Tobacco Countermarketing Campaigns. American Journal of Public Health, 92(6), 901-907.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Krohn, M.D., William, S.F., James, M.L., Akers, W.J. (1985) Social Learning Theory and Adolescent Cigarette Smoking: A Longitudinal Study. Social Problems, 32(5), pp. 455-473.
Lazev, A.B., Herzog, T.A., & Brandon, T.H. (1999) Classical conditions of environmental cues to cigarette smoking. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7(1), pp. 56-63.
Metzler, A.E, Weiskotten, D., & Morgen, K.J. (1999) The application of the elaboration likelihood model to HIV prevention in an adolescent population. Retrieved August 29, 2007 from http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/102187464.html
Pierce, J.P., Macaskill, P., & Hill, D. (1990) Long-term effectiveness of mass media led antismoking campaigns in Australia. American Journal of Public Health, 80(5), pp. 565-599.
Quit Now (2006) Official ‘Quit Now’ Website. Retrieved August, 26, 2007 from http://www.quitnow.info.au/
Stillman, S. (2007) Graphic Anti-Smoking Campaigns Work. Retrieved August, 28, 2007 from http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/06/04/1941268.htm
Wikipedia (2007) Classical Conditioning. Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning
Wikipedia (2007) Elaboration Likelihood Model. Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_Likelihood_Model
Wikipedia (2007) Exposure Effect. Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect
Wikipedia (2006) Observational Learning. Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning
Wikipedia (2007) Operant Conditioning. Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning
Wikipedia (2006) Persuasion, Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion
> Proof – presents physical evidence of tumors, lung cancer, brain clots, gangrene, and rotting teeth.
According to Stillman (2007) mass media campaigns are one of the most effective means to reduce smoking. ‘Evaluation of Australia's famous 'Every cigarette is doing you damage' ad shows that after the first six months of the mass media campaign smoking rates in Australia dropped by 1.4 per cent, representing 190,000 fewer smokers. An economic evaluation has shown that the campaign was excellent value for money and resulted in significant savings to the health system.’ (Stillman, 2007)
Summary
Beliefs and attitudes are necessary for adapting to new situations and attitude change is necessary for arriving at new situations. Theories such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social/observational learning have been developed to explain how attitudes form. Furthermore, theories have also been developed to explain how and why attitudes need to change. It is a general consensus that attitudes are largely changed by persuasion, as the elaboration likelihood model and the Yale attitude change approach suggest. A case example of attitude change through persuasion is the Australian National Tobacco Campaign. This campaign has been designed based on routes specified by the elaboration likelihood model, and employs techniques which generally appeal by reason to the target audience. Overall, the Australian National Tobacco Campaign has been deemed a success in terms of smoking prevalence, and has also been economically worthwhile.
Bibliography
AOL Small Business (2006) Soft Sell or Hard Sell? Retrieved August 27, 2007 from http://smallbusiness.aol.com/grow/marketing/article/_a/soft-sell-or-hard-sell/20051213182709990005
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006) 4831.0.55.001 - Tobacco Smoking in Australia: A Snapshot, 2004-05. Retrieved September, 1, 2007 from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4831.0.55.001
Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social psychology and human nature (1st ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Billingsley, J. (2005) School Anti-Smoking Programs Don't Work. Retrieved August, 30, 2007 from http://www.healthywomen.org/resources/womenshealthinthenews/dbhealthnews/schoolantismokingprogramsdontwork
Changing Minds (2007) Consistency Theory / Conflict Theory / Reinforcement Theory / Incentive Theory. Retrieved August, 26, 2007 from http://www.changingminds.org/theories
Ellis, L. (2006) Fear Tactics and Graphic Advertising: An Appropriate Approach for Reducing the Negative Impact of Smoking. Retrieved August, 29, 2007 from http://www.virginia.edu/humanbiology/new_site_files/class_2006/Ellis%20Abstract.pdf [Accessed
Farrelly, M.C., Healton, C.G., Davis, K.C., Messeri, P., Hersey, J.C., & Haviland, M.L. (2002) Getting to the Truth: Evaluating National Tobacco Countermarketing Campaigns. American Journal of Public Health, 92(6), 901-907.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Krohn, M.D., William, S.F., James, M.L., Akers, W.J. (1985) Social Learning Theory and Adolescent Cigarette Smoking: A Longitudinal Study. Social Problems, 32(5), pp. 455-473.
Lazev, A.B., Herzog, T.A., & Brandon, T.H. (1999) Classical conditions of environmental cues to cigarette smoking. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7(1), pp. 56-63.
Metzler, A.E, Weiskotten, D., & Morgen, K.J. (1999) The application of the elaboration likelihood model to HIV prevention in an adolescent population. Retrieved August 29, 2007 from http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/102187464.html
Pierce, J.P., Macaskill, P., & Hill, D. (1990) Long-term effectiveness of mass media led antismoking campaigns in Australia. American Journal of Public Health, 80(5), pp. 565-599.
Quit Now (2006) Official ‘Quit Now’ Website. Retrieved August, 26, 2007 from http://www.quitnow.info.au/
Stillman, S. (2007) Graphic Anti-Smoking Campaigns Work. Retrieved August, 28, 2007 from http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/06/04/1941268.htm
Wikipedia (2007) Classical Conditioning. Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning
Wikipedia (2007) Elaboration Likelihood Model. Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_Likelihood_Model
Wikipedia (2007) Exposure Effect. Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect
Wikipedia (2006) Observational Learning. Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning
Wikipedia (2007) Operant Conditioning. Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning
Wikipedia (2006) Persuasion, Retrieved August 28, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion
Online Engagement:
To sucessfully complete this assignment I need to engage online. I have engaged in the following ways:
> planned my essay online
> posted progress updates
> added my blog to a list of other's doing the same topic
> spent time looking at other blogs
> participated in discussions
> posted picutres and video
> posted a link to a newpaper article
> Put up an online poll to get peer views.
Sunday, September 2, 2007
Essay Draft
Beliefs and attitudes are necessary for adapting to new situations and attitude change is necessary for arriving at new situations. Attitudes are evaluations of our beliefs are and formed in an array of ways including; classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social/observational learning and mere exposure effect. A variety of theories stipulate how attitudes can be changed once formed; the general consensus being persuasion is the key to change. The Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion presents two routes in which messages can be sent and received, and the Yale attitude change approach specifies factors which influence the effectiveness of the message being sent and the likelihood of persuasion. This essay also contains a case study of the Australian National Tobacco Campaign, which outlines persuasion methods, strategies, and techniques employed by the campaign. The effectiveness of the Australian National Tobacco Campaign is also evaluated.
Beliefs and Attitudes -
Smoking is a behaviour shaped by beliefs (what ones knows about smoking) and attitudes (whether or not one likes or dislikes smoking behaviour). A person’s beliefs about smoking can be shaped by what they do and don’t know about smoking, for example; a person may smoke because they have been exposed to information regarding the consequences and are willing to take health risks, or they may smoke because they haven’t been exposed to such information and don’t know what consequences they may suffer as a result of smoking behaviour. An attitude is an evaluation of a belief, in other words we choose whether we like or dislike something based on what we known about it. ‘Attitudes are necessary and adaptive for humans as they help us to adjust to new situations, seeking out those things in our environment that reward us and avoiding those things that punish us.’ (Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J., 2008, pp. 227) We may also have a duel attitude; that is both implicit and explicit attitudes about smoking behaviour. An implicit attitude is an internal automatic response whereas an explicit is an external controlled response. An example of a dual attitude is disliking smoking because of health risks (i.e your beliefs about smoking) but smoking anyway. Some people poses very strong attitudes, attitude polarization occurs when strong attitudes become more extreme upon reflection.
Consistency theory suggests that when an individual’s beliefs and attitudes are aligned and support one another, that individual experiences a comfortable state of affairs. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) However, when beliefs and attitudes are inconsistent with one another we experience cognitive dissonance (individual awareness of inconsistencies in thoughts, feelings, and opinions). According to Festinger (1957) people avoid information that is likely to increase dissonance.
Formation of attitudes –
Attitudes about smoking, and anything else can be formed by classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social/observational learning, and by mere exposure effect.
Classical conditioning is the repeated pairing of potential attitude objects (conditioned stimuli) with positively and negatively charged stimuli (unconditioned stimulus). (Wikipedia, 2007, online) For example if a cigarette’s (conditioned stimulus) is repeatedly paired with what a smoker believes are ‘positive effects’ (i.e. stress relief, decreased appetite, calmness ect.), over time a conditioned attitude of smoking is formed, that is, ‘smoking makes me feel good’. Lazev, Herzog and Brandon (1999) conducted a study to examine classical conditioning of environmental cues to cigarette smoking. Environmental cues caused physiological reactivity (cardiac responses) indicating environmental cues can be classically conditioned to smoking
Operant conditioning is the use of consequences or rewards for certain behaviour. (Wikipedia, 2007, online) For example each time a person has a cigarette they are rewarded by their perceived positive effects (i.e. stress relief, decreased appetite, calmness ect.) which rewards the behaviour, thus the person becomes a regular smoker. Operant conditioning can also be used to change attitudes by punishing behaviour.
Social learning or observational learning is ‘is learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behavior observed in others.’ (Wikipedia, 2006, online) Children often learn attitudes by observing which behaviours (performed by other people) are rewarded and punished. In terms of smoking a person may form the attitude that smoking is desirable if they observe a smoker relieved from stress after having a cigarette. Alternatively a person may form an undesirable attitude about smoking if they have observed the course of disease of a person with lung cancer. Khron et al. (1985) hypothesised causality for social learning and adolescent cigarette smoking; however, found that social learning theory best accounted for maintenance and cessation rather than initiation of smoking.
And finally, mere exposure effect is the explanation that people express undue liking for things merely because they are familiar with them. (Wikipedia, 2007, online)
Attitude change
Attitudes can be changed as easily as they can be formed. There are a variety of sociopsychological theories which stipulate how this occurs. Particularly prominent theories of attitude change have been conflict theory, reinforcement theory, and incentive theory.
Jans and Mann’s (1968) conflict theory suggests that new information may challenge existing attitudes. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) For example, a new television advertisement which presents scientific findings as to the consequences of smoking may change a person’s beliefs, therefore challenging their attitude about smoking. As a result, the individual will seek out alternative actions (i.e. quitting) through a five step process; (1) appraisal of the challenge, (2) appraisal of alternatives, (3) selection of the best alternative, (4) commitment to a new policy, and (5) evaluation of the new system in place. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) Farrelly et al. (2002) conducted a study to evaluate whether or not new scientific information, presented in an American anti-smoking campaign influenced youth’s smoking beliefs and attitudes. It was found that the presentation of new information did in fact positively influence beliefs and attitudes as the conflict theory suggests.
Consistent with conflict theory is Hovland, Janis, and Kelley’s reinforcement theory. This theory stipulates attitude change is the result of learning and reinforcement of information learned. Furthermore, receiving, hearing, or accepting new options is likely to bring about attitude change. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) A 2005 study of 25,000 American school children, who had attended anti-smoking programs which involved lectures and role-modeling sessions, concluded that anti-smoking programs don’t work unless the messages are reinforced in the home and community. (Billingsley, J., 2005) These findings are consistent with the reinforcement hypothesis.
Finally, incentive theory, also by Hovland, simply puts forth that new opinions and information are accepted if there is the potential for reward. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) However, it is unlikely that this theory is accurate regarding rewards for smoking cessation, as the rewards for cessation aren’t immediate or tangible (i.e less or no health conditions).
Persuasion
Conflict and reinforcement theory attribute successful attitude change based on the acquisition of new information. However, individuals must be persuaded to accept new information before their attitudes can be changed, therefore persuasion is the key to attitude change.
Petty and Cacioppo’s elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM hereafter) describes how attitudes and formed and change through persuasion, based upon an elaboration continuum, which ranges from low elaboration (low thought) to high elaboration (high thought). According to the ELM there are two routes to persuasion, the central route and the peripheral route. A central route of persuasion used by advertisers ‘requires a great deal of thought, and therefore is likely to predominate under conditions that promote high elaboration.’ (Wikipedia, 2007, online) Central route processes (i.e. a speech or advertisement) are designed to encourage the audience to elaborate on the information provided and determine beliefs and an attitude about the presented argument. Attitudes formed or changed by high elaboration are ‘stronger, more predictive of behaviour and information processing, more stable over time, and more resistant to further persuasion than those attitudes formed or changed by low elaboration. (Wikipedia, 2007, online) On the other hand, a peripheral route involves low elaboration of the message and can be as simple as learning a slogan or catch phrase. Despite which route is intended for an advertisement’s audience, there are two factors which determine which route an individual will take in a persuasive situation; motivation (strong desire to process the message) and ability (actually being capable of critical evaluation). (Wikipedia, 2007, online) Ultimately, the message sent has been successfully received if the new attitudes, based on new information, reflect that of the message itself. Metzler et al. (1999) applied the ELM to examine attitude change and persuasion on the topic of HIV prevention. ‘Participants were randomly assigned to one of four audio tape message conditions, varying the message source between high (an HIV positive teen) or low (a parent concerned about AIDS) as well as the strength of the overall argument (strong or weak), while controlling for processing style’. Results revealed central route processes (high elaboration), in this case a HIV positive teenager and a strong argument, were the greatest influence upon attitudes as the ELM stipulates. (Metzler et al., 1999)
Hovland’s Yale attitude change approach, which emphasises persuasion, has been highly influential upon the way in which advertisements are designed. According to Hovland, ‘we should understand attitude change as a response to communication’. (Wikipedia, 2006, online) This theory presents four factors which Hovland believes affect the persuasiveness of a message;
(1) Target characteristics; intelligent individuals are harder to persuade, whereas individuals with moderate self-esteem (compared to high or low self-esteem) are more easily persuaded, however one’s mood is a large variable of this factor.
(2) Source characteristics; the expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness, and perceived credibility of the source (i.e. advertiser) also play a large role in persuasion.
(3) Message characteristics; presenting both sides of a story within a message can sometimes influence persuasion.
(4) Cognitive routes; consistent with the ELM, central routes encourage evaluation of data/argument, whereas peripheral routes encourage individuals to evaluate the attractiveness of the source. (Wikipedia, 2006, online)
Persuasion Strategies –
The most common persuasion strategy used by advertisers is hard sell or soft sell strategies.
Soft sell strategies involve a gentler more emotionally appealing approach. There are three ‘soft steps’ that can be taken when employing a soft sell strategy; (1) listen to and observe what people are saying or have said, (2) question their objections, and (3) address their concerns.
Hard sell strategies are the more aggressive approach to persuasion. There are two ‘hard steps’ which can be taken when employing a hard sell strategy; (1) let enthusiasm and passion show, and (2) be able to support your belief. (AOL Small Business, 2006, online)
Persuasion techniques –
Advertiser’s attempt to persuade target audiences through appeal by reason or appeal by emotion. (Wikipedia, 2007, online)
Appeal by reason techniques include;
§ Logical argument – following a ‘logical’ path or reason (the path a target is likely to take)
§ Scientific method – using statistics, scientific facts, scientific/medical experts to enhance perceived expertise and credibility.
§ Rhetoric – the use of ‘loud’ sophisticated, confusing language to enhance perceived
§ Proof – physically providing, or having an expert deliver proof of the message. (Wikipedia, 2007, online)
Appeal by emotion techniques include;
§ Presentation/Imagination – effective presentation which encourages the audience to imagine attitude change.
§ Seduction – deliberately enticing/motivating individuals astray from their current attitudes.
§ Propaganda - information that is spread for the purpose of promoting some cause. (Wikipedia, 2007, online)
Case Study: The Australian National Tobacco Campaign.
Smoking is the largest single preventable cause of death and disease in Australia. (ABS, 2006, online) A statistical snapshot of 2004-05 reveals 23 percent of adults were current smokers (approximately 3.5 million persons), 21 percent were daily smokers, and 2 percent smoked less frequently. (ABS, 2006, online)
The National Tobacco Campaign (NTC hereafter) is a collaborative quit-smoking health initiative between federal, state, and territory governments, and non-government organisations. (Quit now, 2006, online) Between 1996 and 2004 the federal government has committed $21.3 million to the NTC. (Quit now, 2006, online) The campaign is targeted at 18-40 year old smokers, and aims to persuade the target audience to change their beliefs and attitudes about smoking and quit today rather than planning to do so in the future.
The main message being sent by the NTC is ‘every cigarette is doing you damage’. This message is send via hard-hitting television advertisements, radio advertisements, newspaper advertisements, graphic images on cigarette packaging, bus advertising, poster’s, and Doctor’s television, and on the official ‘quit now’ website. Pierce, Macaskill, and Hill (1990) evaluated a year long Australian anti-smoking campaign in terms of the success of the mass media strategy used, similar to that of the current NTC. It was concluded that a mass media strategy was effective in terms of continuous reinforcement and a decrease in the prevalence of smoking at the time.
As well as a mass media strategy, the NTC employs a hard sell strategy. This is evidenced by the ‘hard-hitting’ prime-time television advertisements and graphic images printed on cigarette packaging produced by the NTC, which are often referred to as ‘shock advertising’ or ‘fear tactics’. According to Ellis (2006) fear tactics and graphic advertising are an appropriate and effective approach for reducing the negative impact of smoking.
In terms of routes of persuasion, the design of NTC advertising indicates intended central and peripheral route processes. For example; the television and radio advertisements, Doctor’s television, and the Quit now website indicate a central route process because these types of advertising require individual’s to think about what they’ve been told/heard and read, and evaluate the information in order to make a decision to change their attitude or not. Graphic images on cigarette packaging, bus advertisements, and posters generally require individuals to remember a catch phrase (i.e. ‘every cigarette is doing you damage’), a slogan (i.e. ‘quit now’) or simply the images advertised, indicating a peripheral process.
The NTC uses a variety of techniques to aid its advertising and influence attitude change, specifically those which appeal by reason. Techniques evident in NTC advertising are;
§ Logical argument – presents both the negatives of smoking, and the positives of smoking cessation.
§ Scientific evidence – presents statistical information, facts and figures.
§ Proof – presents physical evidence of tumors, lung cancer, brain clots, gangrene, and rotting teeth.
According to Stillman (2007) mass media campaigns are one of the most effective means to reduce smoking. ‘Evaluation of Australia's famous 'Every cigarette is doing you damage' ad shows that after the first six months of the mass media campaign smoking rates in Australia dropped by 1.4 per cent, representing 190,000 fewer smokers. An economic evaluation has shown that the campaign was excellent value for money and resulted in significant savings to the health system.’ (Stillman, 2007)
Summary
Beliefs and attitudes are necessary for adapting to new situations and attitude change is necessary for arriving at new situations. Theories such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social/observational learning have been developed to explain how attitudes form. Furthermore, theories have also been developed to explain how and why attitudes need to change. It is a general consensus that attitudes are largely changed by persuasion, as the elaboration likelihood model and the Yale attitude change approach suggest. A case example of attitude change through persuasion is the Australian National Tobacco Campaign. This campaign has been designed based on routes specified by the elaboration likelihood model, and employs techniques which generally appeal by reason to the target audience. Overall, the Australian National Tobacco Campaign has been deemed a success in terms of smoking prevalence, and has also been economically worthwhile.
Bibliography
AOL Small Business (2006) Soft Sell or Hard Sell? (online) http://smallbusiness.aol.com/grow/marketing/article/_a/soft-sell-or-hard-sell/20051213182709990005 [Accessed 01/09/07]
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006) 4831.0.55.001 - Tobacco Smoking in Australia: A Snapshot, 2004-05 (online) http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4831.0.55.001 [Accessed 30/08/07]
Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social psychology and human nature (1st ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Billingsley, J. (2005) School Anti-Smoking Programs Don't Work. (online) http://www.healthywomen.org/resources/womenshealthinthenews/dbhealthnews/schoolantismokingprogramsdontwork [Accessed 30/08/07]
Changing Minds (2007) Consistency Theory / Conflict Theory / Reinforcement Theory / Incentive Theory. (Online) http://www.changingminds.org/theories [Accessed 26/08/07]
Ellis, L. (2006) Fear Tactics and Graphic Advertising: An Appropriate Approach for Reducing the Negative Impact of Smoking. (online) http://www.virginia.edu/humanbiology/new_site_files/class_2006/Ellis%20Abstract.pdf [Accessed 01/09/07]
Farrelly, M.C., Healton, C.G., Davis, K.C., Messeri, P., Hersey, J.C., & Haviland, M.L. (2002) Getting to the Truth: Evaluating National Tobacco Countermarketing Campaigns. American Journal of Public Health, 92(6), 901-907.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Krohn, M.D., William, S.F., James, M.L., Akers, W.J. (1985) Social Learning Theory and Adolescent Cigarette Smoking: A Longitudinal Study. Social Problems, 32(5), pp. 455-473.
Lazev, A.B., Herzog, T.A., & Brandon, T.H. (1999) Classical conditions of environmental cues to cigarette smoking. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7(1), pp. 56-63.
Metzler, A.E, Weiskotten, D., & Morgen, K.J. (1999) The application of the elaboration likelihood model to HIV prevention in an adolescent population. (online) http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/102187464.html [Accessed 25/08/07]
Pierce, J.P., Macaskill, P., & Hill, D. (1990) Long-term effectiveness of mass media led antismoking campaigns in Australia. American Journal of Public Health, 80(5), pp. 565-599.
Quit Now (2006) Official ‘Quit Now’ Website. (online) http://www.quitnow.info.au/ [Accessed 21/08/07]
Stillman, S. (2007) Graphic Anti-Smoking Campaigns Work. (online) http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/06/04/1941268.htm [Accessed 30/09/07]
Wikipedia (2007) Classical Conditioning. (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning [Accessed 30/08/07]
Wikipedia (2007) Elaboration Likelihood Model. (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_Likelihood_Model [Accessed 28/08/07]
Wikipedia (2007) Exposure Effect (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect [Accessed 20/08/07]
Wikipedia (2006) Observational Learning (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning [Accessed 30/08/07]
Wikipedia (2007) Operant Conditioning. (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning [Accessed 26/08/07]
Wikipedia (2006) Persuasion (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion [Accessed 01/09/07]
Beliefs and Attitudes -
Smoking is a behaviour shaped by beliefs (what ones knows about smoking) and attitudes (whether or not one likes or dislikes smoking behaviour). A person’s beliefs about smoking can be shaped by what they do and don’t know about smoking, for example; a person may smoke because they have been exposed to information regarding the consequences and are willing to take health risks, or they may smoke because they haven’t been exposed to such information and don’t know what consequences they may suffer as a result of smoking behaviour. An attitude is an evaluation of a belief, in other words we choose whether we like or dislike something based on what we known about it. ‘Attitudes are necessary and adaptive for humans as they help us to adjust to new situations, seeking out those things in our environment that reward us and avoiding those things that punish us.’ (Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J., 2008, pp. 227) We may also have a duel attitude; that is both implicit and explicit attitudes about smoking behaviour. An implicit attitude is an internal automatic response whereas an explicit is an external controlled response. An example of a dual attitude is disliking smoking because of health risks (i.e your beliefs about smoking) but smoking anyway. Some people poses very strong attitudes, attitude polarization occurs when strong attitudes become more extreme upon reflection.
Consistency theory suggests that when an individual’s beliefs and attitudes are aligned and support one another, that individual experiences a comfortable state of affairs. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) However, when beliefs and attitudes are inconsistent with one another we experience cognitive dissonance (individual awareness of inconsistencies in thoughts, feelings, and opinions). According to Festinger (1957) people avoid information that is likely to increase dissonance.
Formation of attitudes –
Attitudes about smoking, and anything else can be formed by classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social/observational learning, and by mere exposure effect.
Classical conditioning is the repeated pairing of potential attitude objects (conditioned stimuli) with positively and negatively charged stimuli (unconditioned stimulus). (Wikipedia, 2007, online) For example if a cigarette’s (conditioned stimulus) is repeatedly paired with what a smoker believes are ‘positive effects’ (i.e. stress relief, decreased appetite, calmness ect.), over time a conditioned attitude of smoking is formed, that is, ‘smoking makes me feel good’. Lazev, Herzog and Brandon (1999) conducted a study to examine classical conditioning of environmental cues to cigarette smoking. Environmental cues caused physiological reactivity (cardiac responses) indicating environmental cues can be classically conditioned to smoking
Operant conditioning is the use of consequences or rewards for certain behaviour. (Wikipedia, 2007, online) For example each time a person has a cigarette they are rewarded by their perceived positive effects (i.e. stress relief, decreased appetite, calmness ect.) which rewards the behaviour, thus the person becomes a regular smoker. Operant conditioning can also be used to change attitudes by punishing behaviour.
Social learning or observational learning is ‘is learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behavior observed in others.’ (Wikipedia, 2006, online) Children often learn attitudes by observing which behaviours (performed by other people) are rewarded and punished. In terms of smoking a person may form the attitude that smoking is desirable if they observe a smoker relieved from stress after having a cigarette. Alternatively a person may form an undesirable attitude about smoking if they have observed the course of disease of a person with lung cancer. Khron et al. (1985) hypothesised causality for social learning and adolescent cigarette smoking; however, found that social learning theory best accounted for maintenance and cessation rather than initiation of smoking.
And finally, mere exposure effect is the explanation that people express undue liking for things merely because they are familiar with them. (Wikipedia, 2007, online)
Attitude change
Attitudes can be changed as easily as they can be formed. There are a variety of sociopsychological theories which stipulate how this occurs. Particularly prominent theories of attitude change have been conflict theory, reinforcement theory, and incentive theory.
Jans and Mann’s (1968) conflict theory suggests that new information may challenge existing attitudes. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) For example, a new television advertisement which presents scientific findings as to the consequences of smoking may change a person’s beliefs, therefore challenging their attitude about smoking. As a result, the individual will seek out alternative actions (i.e. quitting) through a five step process; (1) appraisal of the challenge, (2) appraisal of alternatives, (3) selection of the best alternative, (4) commitment to a new policy, and (5) evaluation of the new system in place. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) Farrelly et al. (2002) conducted a study to evaluate whether or not new scientific information, presented in an American anti-smoking campaign influenced youth’s smoking beliefs and attitudes. It was found that the presentation of new information did in fact positively influence beliefs and attitudes as the conflict theory suggests.
Consistent with conflict theory is Hovland, Janis, and Kelley’s reinforcement theory. This theory stipulates attitude change is the result of learning and reinforcement of information learned. Furthermore, receiving, hearing, or accepting new options is likely to bring about attitude change. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) A 2005 study of 25,000 American school children, who had attended anti-smoking programs which involved lectures and role-modeling sessions, concluded that anti-smoking programs don’t work unless the messages are reinforced in the home and community. (Billingsley, J., 2005) These findings are consistent with the reinforcement hypothesis.
Finally, incentive theory, also by Hovland, simply puts forth that new opinions and information are accepted if there is the potential for reward. (Changing Minds, 2007, online) However, it is unlikely that this theory is accurate regarding rewards for smoking cessation, as the rewards for cessation aren’t immediate or tangible (i.e less or no health conditions).
Persuasion
Conflict and reinforcement theory attribute successful attitude change based on the acquisition of new information. However, individuals must be persuaded to accept new information before their attitudes can be changed, therefore persuasion is the key to attitude change.
Petty and Cacioppo’s elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM hereafter) describes how attitudes and formed and change through persuasion, based upon an elaboration continuum, which ranges from low elaboration (low thought) to high elaboration (high thought). According to the ELM there are two routes to persuasion, the central route and the peripheral route. A central route of persuasion used by advertisers ‘requires a great deal of thought, and therefore is likely to predominate under conditions that promote high elaboration.’ (Wikipedia, 2007, online) Central route processes (i.e. a speech or advertisement) are designed to encourage the audience to elaborate on the information provided and determine beliefs and an attitude about the presented argument. Attitudes formed or changed by high elaboration are ‘stronger, more predictive of behaviour and information processing, more stable over time, and more resistant to further persuasion than those attitudes formed or changed by low elaboration. (Wikipedia, 2007, online) On the other hand, a peripheral route involves low elaboration of the message and can be as simple as learning a slogan or catch phrase. Despite which route is intended for an advertisement’s audience, there are two factors which determine which route an individual will take in a persuasive situation; motivation (strong desire to process the message) and ability (actually being capable of critical evaluation). (Wikipedia, 2007, online) Ultimately, the message sent has been successfully received if the new attitudes, based on new information, reflect that of the message itself. Metzler et al. (1999) applied the ELM to examine attitude change and persuasion on the topic of HIV prevention. ‘Participants were randomly assigned to one of four audio tape message conditions, varying the message source between high (an HIV positive teen) or low (a parent concerned about AIDS) as well as the strength of the overall argument (strong or weak), while controlling for processing style’. Results revealed central route processes (high elaboration), in this case a HIV positive teenager and a strong argument, were the greatest influence upon attitudes as the ELM stipulates. (Metzler et al., 1999)
Hovland’s Yale attitude change approach, which emphasises persuasion, has been highly influential upon the way in which advertisements are designed. According to Hovland, ‘we should understand attitude change as a response to communication’. (Wikipedia, 2006, online) This theory presents four factors which Hovland believes affect the persuasiveness of a message;
(1) Target characteristics; intelligent individuals are harder to persuade, whereas individuals with moderate self-esteem (compared to high or low self-esteem) are more easily persuaded, however one’s mood is a large variable of this factor.
(2) Source characteristics; the expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness, and perceived credibility of the source (i.e. advertiser) also play a large role in persuasion.
(3) Message characteristics; presenting both sides of a story within a message can sometimes influence persuasion.
(4) Cognitive routes; consistent with the ELM, central routes encourage evaluation of data/argument, whereas peripheral routes encourage individuals to evaluate the attractiveness of the source. (Wikipedia, 2006, online)
Persuasion Strategies –
The most common persuasion strategy used by advertisers is hard sell or soft sell strategies.
Soft sell strategies involve a gentler more emotionally appealing approach. There are three ‘soft steps’ that can be taken when employing a soft sell strategy; (1) listen to and observe what people are saying or have said, (2) question their objections, and (3) address their concerns.
Hard sell strategies are the more aggressive approach to persuasion. There are two ‘hard steps’ which can be taken when employing a hard sell strategy; (1) let enthusiasm and passion show, and (2) be able to support your belief. (AOL Small Business, 2006, online)
Persuasion techniques –
Advertiser’s attempt to persuade target audiences through appeal by reason or appeal by emotion. (Wikipedia, 2007, online)
Appeal by reason techniques include;
§ Logical argument – following a ‘logical’ path or reason (the path a target is likely to take)
§ Scientific method – using statistics, scientific facts, scientific/medical experts to enhance perceived expertise and credibility.
§ Rhetoric – the use of ‘loud’ sophisticated, confusing language to enhance perceived
§ Proof – physically providing, or having an expert deliver proof of the message. (Wikipedia, 2007, online)
Appeal by emotion techniques include;
§ Presentation/Imagination – effective presentation which encourages the audience to imagine attitude change.
§ Seduction – deliberately enticing/motivating individuals astray from their current attitudes.
§ Propaganda - information that is spread for the purpose of promoting some cause. (Wikipedia, 2007, online)
Case Study: The Australian National Tobacco Campaign.
Smoking is the largest single preventable cause of death and disease in Australia. (ABS, 2006, online) A statistical snapshot of 2004-05 reveals 23 percent of adults were current smokers (approximately 3.5 million persons), 21 percent were daily smokers, and 2 percent smoked less frequently. (ABS, 2006, online)
The National Tobacco Campaign (NTC hereafter) is a collaborative quit-smoking health initiative between federal, state, and territory governments, and non-government organisations. (Quit now, 2006, online) Between 1996 and 2004 the federal government has committed $21.3 million to the NTC. (Quit now, 2006, online) The campaign is targeted at 18-40 year old smokers, and aims to persuade the target audience to change their beliefs and attitudes about smoking and quit today rather than planning to do so in the future.
The main message being sent by the NTC is ‘every cigarette is doing you damage’. This message is send via hard-hitting television advertisements, radio advertisements, newspaper advertisements, graphic images on cigarette packaging, bus advertising, poster’s, and Doctor’s television, and on the official ‘quit now’ website. Pierce, Macaskill, and Hill (1990) evaluated a year long Australian anti-smoking campaign in terms of the success of the mass media strategy used, similar to that of the current NTC. It was concluded that a mass media strategy was effective in terms of continuous reinforcement and a decrease in the prevalence of smoking at the time.
As well as a mass media strategy, the NTC employs a hard sell strategy. This is evidenced by the ‘hard-hitting’ prime-time television advertisements and graphic images printed on cigarette packaging produced by the NTC, which are often referred to as ‘shock advertising’ or ‘fear tactics’. According to Ellis (2006) fear tactics and graphic advertising are an appropriate and effective approach for reducing the negative impact of smoking.
In terms of routes of persuasion, the design of NTC advertising indicates intended central and peripheral route processes. For example; the television and radio advertisements, Doctor’s television, and the Quit now website indicate a central route process because these types of advertising require individual’s to think about what they’ve been told/heard and read, and evaluate the information in order to make a decision to change their attitude or not. Graphic images on cigarette packaging, bus advertisements, and posters generally require individuals to remember a catch phrase (i.e. ‘every cigarette is doing you damage’), a slogan (i.e. ‘quit now’) or simply the images advertised, indicating a peripheral process.
The NTC uses a variety of techniques to aid its advertising and influence attitude change, specifically those which appeal by reason. Techniques evident in NTC advertising are;
§ Logical argument – presents both the negatives of smoking, and the positives of smoking cessation.
§ Scientific evidence – presents statistical information, facts and figures.
§ Proof – presents physical evidence of tumors, lung cancer, brain clots, gangrene, and rotting teeth.
According to Stillman (2007) mass media campaigns are one of the most effective means to reduce smoking. ‘Evaluation of Australia's famous 'Every cigarette is doing you damage' ad shows that after the first six months of the mass media campaign smoking rates in Australia dropped by 1.4 per cent, representing 190,000 fewer smokers. An economic evaluation has shown that the campaign was excellent value for money and resulted in significant savings to the health system.’ (Stillman, 2007)
Summary
Beliefs and attitudes are necessary for adapting to new situations and attitude change is necessary for arriving at new situations. Theories such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social/observational learning have been developed to explain how attitudes form. Furthermore, theories have also been developed to explain how and why attitudes need to change. It is a general consensus that attitudes are largely changed by persuasion, as the elaboration likelihood model and the Yale attitude change approach suggest. A case example of attitude change through persuasion is the Australian National Tobacco Campaign. This campaign has been designed based on routes specified by the elaboration likelihood model, and employs techniques which generally appeal by reason to the target audience. Overall, the Australian National Tobacco Campaign has been deemed a success in terms of smoking prevalence, and has also been economically worthwhile.
Bibliography
AOL Small Business (2006) Soft Sell or Hard Sell? (online) http://smallbusiness.aol.com/grow/marketing/article/_a/soft-sell-or-hard-sell/20051213182709990005 [Accessed 01/09/07]
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006) 4831.0.55.001 - Tobacco Smoking in Australia: A Snapshot, 2004-05 (online) http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4831.0.55.001 [Accessed 30/08/07]
Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social psychology and human nature (1st ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Billingsley, J. (2005) School Anti-Smoking Programs Don't Work. (online) http://www.healthywomen.org/resources/womenshealthinthenews/dbhealthnews/schoolantismokingprogramsdontwork [Accessed 30/08/07]
Changing Minds (2007) Consistency Theory / Conflict Theory / Reinforcement Theory / Incentive Theory. (Online) http://www.changingminds.org/theories [Accessed 26/08/07]
Ellis, L. (2006) Fear Tactics and Graphic Advertising: An Appropriate Approach for Reducing the Negative Impact of Smoking. (online) http://www.virginia.edu/humanbiology/new_site_files/class_2006/Ellis%20Abstract.pdf [Accessed 01/09/07]
Farrelly, M.C., Healton, C.G., Davis, K.C., Messeri, P., Hersey, J.C., & Haviland, M.L. (2002) Getting to the Truth: Evaluating National Tobacco Countermarketing Campaigns. American Journal of Public Health, 92(6), 901-907.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Krohn, M.D., William, S.F., James, M.L., Akers, W.J. (1985) Social Learning Theory and Adolescent Cigarette Smoking: A Longitudinal Study. Social Problems, 32(5), pp. 455-473.
Lazev, A.B., Herzog, T.A., & Brandon, T.H. (1999) Classical conditions of environmental cues to cigarette smoking. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7(1), pp. 56-63.
Metzler, A.E, Weiskotten, D., & Morgen, K.J. (1999) The application of the elaboration likelihood model to HIV prevention in an adolescent population. (online) http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/102187464.html [Accessed 25/08/07]
Pierce, J.P., Macaskill, P., & Hill, D. (1990) Long-term effectiveness of mass media led antismoking campaigns in Australia. American Journal of Public Health, 80(5), pp. 565-599.
Quit Now (2006) Official ‘Quit Now’ Website. (online) http://www.quitnow.info.au/ [Accessed 21/08/07]
Stillman, S. (2007) Graphic Anti-Smoking Campaigns Work. (online) http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/06/04/1941268.htm [Accessed 30/09/07]
Wikipedia (2007) Classical Conditioning. (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning [Accessed 30/08/07]
Wikipedia (2007) Elaboration Likelihood Model. (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_Likelihood_Model [Accessed 28/08/07]
Wikipedia (2007) Exposure Effect (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect [Accessed 20/08/07]
Wikipedia (2006) Observational Learning (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning [Accessed 30/08/07]
Wikipedia (2007) Operant Conditioning. (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning [Accessed 26/08/07]
Wikipedia (2006) Persuasion (online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion [Accessed 01/09/07]
Saturday, September 1, 2007
Progress update
Hellloo,
So i haven't really been following my plan but my essay is finally taking shape and i've decided on a different format.
I'm having great difficulty of trying to adequately incorporate my example which is the the national tobacco campaign so i've decided to split my essay into 2 halves.
For the first half of the essay im doing to run through beliefs, attitudes, formation of attitudes, attitude change, persuasion (strategies, techniques ect).
For every topic i have a couple of theories and some research to back them up.
And for the second half of the essay i'm going to do what i'm calling a case study. So basically i'm going to run through why and how the NTC is trying to change smoking attitudes and go into quite a bit of detail about it's persuasion strategy and advertising techniques and finally i'm going to evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy based on my own oppinions, recent statistics and a couple of newspaper articles i've come accross.
I've never tried a format like this before so for now I'm using headings and sub-headings, and i'll probably leave them in when i submit it so that it's easier to follow.
Thoughts would be greatly appreciated!
P.S This is a dumb question, but we have to submit at 9 on monday..i assume that's 9am..anyone want to calrify that?
Happy blogging everyone!
So i haven't really been following my plan but my essay is finally taking shape and i've decided on a different format.
I'm having great difficulty of trying to adequately incorporate my example which is the the national tobacco campaign so i've decided to split my essay into 2 halves.
For the first half of the essay im doing to run through beliefs, attitudes, formation of attitudes, attitude change, persuasion (strategies, techniques ect).
For every topic i have a couple of theories and some research to back them up.
And for the second half of the essay i'm going to do what i'm calling a case study. So basically i'm going to run through why and how the NTC is trying to change smoking attitudes and go into quite a bit of detail about it's persuasion strategy and advertising techniques and finally i'm going to evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy based on my own oppinions, recent statistics and a couple of newspaper articles i've come accross.
I've never tried a format like this before so for now I'm using headings and sub-headings, and i'll probably leave them in when i submit it so that it's easier to follow.
Thoughts would be greatly appreciated!
P.S This is a dumb question, but we have to submit at 9 on monday..i assume that's 9am..anyone want to calrify that?
Happy blogging everyone!
Friday, August 31, 2007
TV Ad's from the Campaign
This video is a compilation of a lot of the National Tobacco Campaign's Tv Ad's. I'm sure everyone has seen one of these Ad's before. I found it interesting to watch a few of them compiled like this because you can see the repitition of the message over and over. 'Every cigarette is doing you damage!'.
The plan...
Hi Everyone,
So i've started writing up my draft (probably 2/3 of the way there!) so i'll put up a copy on my blog maybe tonight if i can find the energy to finish it.
But for now i'm going to give u an outline of where I have been, and where i'm going with my essay.
I've also tried to put some video's up but it's a bit tricky (and i'm technically challenged)..so i'm going to try and follow James' instructions later this afternoon and get them up on here ASAP.
So heres the plan..
Abstract and Inro
About smoking in general (some ABS stats)
About the National Tobacco Campaign
Brief outline of beliefs and attitudes (implicit and explicit)
How attitudes are formed ( a little bit on classical conditioning)
How attitudes can be changed: (persuasion)
1. Yale attitude change approach (Carl Hovland)
2. Elaboration likelihood model
3. Knowledge-Action Model
Techniques used to change attitudes:
(specifically those used by the NTC)
Outcome/success of the NTC so far
Conclusion
Concept map
That's it for now!
So i've started writing up my draft (probably 2/3 of the way there!) so i'll put up a copy on my blog maybe tonight if i can find the energy to finish it.
But for now i'm going to give u an outline of where I have been, and where i'm going with my essay.
I've also tried to put some video's up but it's a bit tricky (and i'm technically challenged)..so i'm going to try and follow James' instructions later this afternoon and get them up on here ASAP.
So heres the plan..
Abstract and Inro
About smoking in general (some ABS stats)
About the National Tobacco Campaign
Brief outline of beliefs and attitudes (implicit and explicit)
How attitudes are formed ( a little bit on classical conditioning)
How attitudes can be changed: (persuasion)
1. Yale attitude change approach (Carl Hovland)
2. Elaboration likelihood model
3. Knowledge-Action Model
Techniques used to change attitudes:
(specifically those used by the NTC)
Outcome/success of the NTC so far
Conclusion
Concept map
That's it for now!
Wednesday, August 29, 2007
Newspaper article I came across...
Hi again,
I was just doing some research and came across an article about the national tobacco campaign. I found it to be good in terms of getting feedback about the campaign which will hopefully be useful for my essay.
Anyways have a look if your interested!
http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/06/04/1941268.htm
I was just doing some research and came across an article about the national tobacco campaign. I found it to be good in terms of getting feedback about the campaign which will hopefully be useful for my essay.
Anyways have a look if your interested!
http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/06/04/1941268.htm
Attitude change - The National Tobacco Campaign
Hi Everyone,
I've decided to do the Blog question on attitude change. I've chosen the National Tobacco Campaign as my point of interest. I'm sure everyone has by now been exposed to this campaign, It is responsible for the repulsive pictures on cigarette packets, and similar TV commercials. Specifically i'm interested in pointing out how and why this campaign is different, especially in terms of using 'shock tactics' (which is a new strategy). I wanted to do this campaign because I know for a fact it is working. I quit smoking on the 28th of June and haven't looked back!
Here are some pictures which are the backbone of the campaign -
I've decided to do the Blog question on attitude change. I've chosen the National Tobacco Campaign as my point of interest. I'm sure everyone has by now been exposed to this campaign, It is responsible for the repulsive pictures on cigarette packets, and similar TV commercials. Specifically i'm interested in pointing out how and why this campaign is different, especially in terms of using 'shock tactics' (which is a new strategy). I wanted to do this campaign because I know for a fact it is working. I quit smoking on the 28th of June and haven't looked back!
Here are some pictures which are the backbone of the campaign -
Wednesday, July 18, 2007
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